Tutankhamon (Tutenkh-amen-amun, 1341 BC - 1323 BC) was an Egyptian pharaoh, 12th ruler of the 18th dynasty (ruled c.1333 BC - 1323 BC), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. Tutankhamun ascended the throne at the age of 9 yrs and ruled until his death, ten yrs later, at the age of 19. His throne name was Neb-Kheperu-Re, which means "Lord of Manifestations is Re".

Prior to Howard Carter's discovery of his tomb, almost nothing was known of him and interestingly, the one disappointment in Carter's discovery was that there was little documentation found within his tomb. Therefore, we still know relatively little about Tutankhamon. Yet, Tutankhamon is, in modern times, the most famous of the Pharaohs, and the only one to have a nickname in popular culture ("King Tut").

Life:

Tutankamun was not given this name at birth, but rather Tutankhaten (meaning "Living Image of the Aten), squarely placing him in the line of pharaohs following Akhenaten, the heretic pharaoh, who was most likely his father. He changed his name in year two of his rule to Tutankhamun (which means "Living Image of Amon, which is actually a reference to Karnak). When he became king, he married his half sister, Ankhesenepatan, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn - their mummies were discovered in his tomb.

King Tut was the result of an incestuous relationship and, because of that, may have suffered from several genetic defects that contributed to his early death. His mother was one of Akhenaten's five sisters, although it is not known which one. His congenital flaws are more common among the children of incest.

Reign:

Given his age, the king must have had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb, the Vizier Ay, and Maya the "Overseer of the Treasury". Horemheb records that the king appointed him Lord of the Land as Hereditary Prince to maintain law. In his third reignal year, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. A move was made, probably under the direction of Ay and Horemheb, to return Egypt to its traditional ancient religion.

He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. His building work at Luxor included the continuation of the entrance colonnades of the Amenhotep III temple, including associated statues. As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Thebes and Karnak, where he dedicated a temple to Amun, embellished with images of Amun, Amunet and Khonsu.

We also know, mostly from fragments, that he built at Memphis. At Kawa, in the far south, he built a temple. Pair of granite lions from that temple flanks the entrance to the Egyptian Sculpture Gallery at the British Museum. Military wise, little happened during the reign of Tutankhamun. The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb.

Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. There are paintings in the tomb of Horemheb and as well as the tomb of Huy that seem to confirm these campaigns, though it is unlikely that the young Tutankhamun actually took part in the military actions directly. The campaigns in Palestine/Syria met with little success, but those in Nubia appear to have gone much better.


Death:

Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun was assassinated, the general consensus is that his death was accidental. CT scan taken in 2005 shows that he had badly broken his leg shortly before his death, and that the leg had become infected. He was infected with the most severe strain of malaria several times in his short life. It is believed that these two conditions combined led to his death.

During the ancient Egyptian period people mostly travelled barefoot. It is believed that since the temperature in Egypt was very high throughout the year, people gave less importance to wearing footwear. There is hardly any record to suggest that the Egyptians wore shoes or any other form of footwear.

The ancient Egyptians began wearing sandals during the early years of the New Kingdom rule. The sandals used by these people were very simple and were made either by using straw, reeds or leather. The wealthy people wore leather sandals and these lasted for a longer time than the sandals which were made using straw or reeds.

The sandals were worn by all people belonging to all the classes except those who were extremely poor. The sandals were decorated by using beads, jewels; some also had buckles on the straps made from precious metals. For the most part, the ancient Egyptians walked without wearing sandals or shoes. Sandals were worn by people on special events. The gold and wood sandals are known to have been made in the ancient Egyptian period.

During the Middle and New Kingdoms time, the sandals were commonly used. The use of covered shoes by the ancient Egyptians is not very well known. However some records suggest that shoes were made by weaving palm fiber and grass. In the Early Middle Kingdom, shoes were a modification of sandals.

Shoes had straps between the toes and were joined to the sides at the heel. It also had leather cover which protected the feet. The Hittites settled in Anatolian highlands wore shoes with turned up toes. The Egyptians during the New Kingdom period are said to be influenced by the Hittites and began using shoes.

When it was found among the hair of the mummy, this gold cuff Queen Ahhotep was thought to be a crown. Because of its size, however, it is certain that it was to be worn around the arm for protection.

It is inlaid with lapis lazuli and carnelian and decorated with gold and inlaid vaulture bearing the names of Ahmose.

Egypt is one of the countries in Africa and the Middle East. The ancient name for Egypt is Kemet meaning 'black land'. It had obtained its name owing to the fertile black soil found on the plains of the Nile river which flows through Egypt. Egypt is also known for its historical monuments like the Giza pyramid complex and even the Egyptian civilization holds a lot of importance.

Egypt is a country which has political and cultural significance for the Middle East. Egypt derived its English name from various sources like the French word Egypte, from Latin Aegyptus and ancient Greek Aigyptos. Facts include farming, paintings, education, religious beliefs and other things that related to and explained the Egyptian lifestyle.

Farming in Egypt

One of the fundamental reasons that attributed Egypt to flourish was the fertile black soil along the Nile river which flowed through Egypt. Farming was a significant activity carried on by the ancient Egyptians. During that time, many farmers were experts in cultivating wheat, vegetables, a variety of fruits and onions.

Other items of farming included barley, flax, leeks, garlic, beans, grapes, figs etc. Wheat was used for making bread, barley for beer and Flax was integral for textile fiber. Papyrus reeds which grew naturally on Nile river were used making sandals, boats, paper, mats and baskets. Farming was carried out in all the seasons, except when it flooded. During floods people avoided farming.

Animals like goat, cattle oxen, pigs, ducks, etc were kept by the Egyptian people for their milk, meat and using them in farming. In the ancient Egypt irrigation was classified into catch basin, shaduf and dykes. Shaduf was functional in the high lying regions. The different types of irrigation helped in amplifying both the quality and quantity of crops thus making Egypt a prosperous nation.

Paintings in Egypt

The Egyptian paintings were basically dedicated to a dead person. Paintings were a way of expressing the intention of its maker that the deceased should have a good life after death. Many paintings show the whole journey after death. Also, there was a practice of painting on the tombs the things the dead person did before his death and what the deceased hoped he would keep doing forever.

Paintings were a source of keeping the history alive. The paintings also showed how the Egyptians lived their life and their belief about death and life after death was. Another important aspect of the Egyptian paintings was the depiction of animals. The primary colors used for painting were red, green, blue, gold and black.

The Egyptians considered painting as a way of providing the dead a support which enabled him to carry on his journey after death. The essence of the Egyptian paintings was its complete nature and less importance was given to the beautification of the painting. It was very essential for the maker of the painting to conserve everything he drew permanently. The painting was made by its maker by using his memory so that everything he includes in the paintings remains intact forever.

Costumes worn in Egypt

Clothes were primarily made from white linen. The Egyptian people also used wool. However, clothes made from wool were prohibited in the temples as they were made from animals. Egyptian people believed that wool should not touch the skin and so was made in that fashion. Men wore loincloths or short skirts. Women generally wore robes or tight dresses. Some of the dresses had some straps which concealed the breasts and the others exposed them.

However much depended on the fashion that was prevalent then. Children during the Egyptian time did not wear clothes until they reach adolescence. The clothes fashion was simple in the initial years of the Egyptian rule but it became complex at the fag end of the New Kingdom. Clothes pattern was determined by the occupation of a person. Farmers wore short skirts while a poor person wore fewer clothes.

Egyptian Pharaohs

Pharaoh is a modern title given to ancient Egyptian rulers. However, the Kings were not referred to as Pharaoh by the ancient Egyptians. The term 'Pharaoh' was basically used by Greek and Hebrews. The word par'o in Hebrew referred to the word 'pr' in Egyptian language which meant 'the great house'. The term 'Pharaoh' was always used in relation to the Royal Palace and it meant for the life, prosperity and health of the palace.

From the fifteenth century BC Pharaoh was used as a synonym to King. However, the first use of the word 'pharaoh' can be traced to the New Kingdom during the middle of the eighteenth dynasty. After 2000 BC, Pharaoh was referred to by five names, four of them being his throne names and one was the name given to him at the time of his birth.

The late Egyptian word, the par'o word was reconstructed as per the Ancient Greek and Late Latin words pronounced as 'Pharaoh'. It was from this letter that the English word 'Pharaoh' was obtained. The ancient Egyptian people believed that Pharaoh was God Horus, the son of God Re or the Sun God. On the death of a Pharaoh it was assumed that he should be united with the sun.

Religious Beliefs

The ancient Egyptians strongly believed in God and life after death. The rule of Pharaohs was laid on the foundation of Divine Rights of Kings. The Egyptians were of the view that to please gods they should make some offerings and pray to god. Gods were worshiped in temples that were under the care of the priests who acted on behalf of the King.


The statue of the God was placed in the heart of the temple. It was only on selected few occasions that the statue of the god was open for public worship. After the New Kingdom, the role of the King as a mediator between God and people received less emphasis. In fact, the priests created a system of revelation wherein people could directly communicate with God.

Another dominant belief was that humans are made of physical and spiritual aspects and every individual has his own shadow, soul, life force and a name. It was believed that heart was the place for emotions and thoughts. After the death of the person, the final goal of the deceased was to unite his life force and soul to be regarded as the 'blessed dead'.

Culture of Ancient Egypt

The culture consisted of housing patterns, food, architecture, etc. The Egyptians had a staple diet of bread, beer along with vegetables like onions, garlic, fruits like date and fig. Meat and wine were consumed by everyone in general on certain occasions while the rich had it very frequently. The social ranking of an individual was a deciding factor in the food he could consume. The rich could afford a variety of food items while the poor were forced to stick to the normal food they could afford.

Beer and Wine were customary drinks for all classes. Honey was used instead of sugar. Butter and cheese was served at banquets held by the rich. The average people lived in mud-bricks while the rich people lived in double-thick bricks which controlled the room temperature. Nobles living in palaces had huge structures and ornamented walls and floors. Construction of buildings was sanctioned and funded by the state for religious purposes. It also symbolized the re-inforcing the power of the Pharaoh.

Language of Ancient Egypt

Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language which was spoken in Egypt till the 10th century AD. The language is associated to Berber and Semitic languages like Arabic and Hebrew. After this period, it continued to be in use as the liturgical language of the Egyptians, Christians, Copts. The Old Egyptian language was spoken for around 500 years from 2600 BC onwards.

It was the language spoken in the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. Middle Egyptian was spoken for around 700 years from 2000 BC. It was often dubbed as Classical Egyptian and was known from various textual evidence. It however survived till some centuries AD despite the usage of Late Egyptian language.

Latin was spoken in the middle ages. Demotic was a spoken language till the 5th century AD. Demotic language is a mixture of Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic that was prevalent in the Delta and the stage of Egyptian language between Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic period. Coptic was the last language that was adopted by the ancient Egyptians.

Sphinxes are majestic monuments of Egyptian civilisation. Sphinxes were in the forms of tombs so that the tombs inside could be guarded. The name 'sphinx' which means 'strangler' was first given by the Greeks to a fabulous creature which had the head of a woman and the body of a lion and the wings of a bird. However some believe that the name may come from the Egyptian phrase 'shesep ankh', which means living image. Worship of sun god Ra is associated with the origin of sphinx.

The origin of sphinx dates back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt. First sphinxes were made by the rulers of fourth dynasty. They were carved out of a single knoll of stone and have the head of a man with the face of a pharaoh, a ram, or a hawk. It has the body, legs, and tail of a lion. The sphinx has no markings to date it. The Egyptians used names such as "balhib" or "bilhaw" for these structures, as texts suggest. Most of them are male, but female sphinxes were not unknown. The face of a sphinx usually portrays a pharaoh, as he is supposed to be an incarnation of the sun god.

The riddle of the sphinx is interesting. If someone walks by the sphinx, it would ask them a question, "What has one voice, and yet goes from four legs, to two legs, to three legs?" Human being was the answer because he crawled in his childhood and develops as an adult with two legs. Finally when he turned old, he was to carry a stick which was the third leg. The answerer would be eaten by the sphinx if his answer was incorrect.

The oldest and the most prominent among all sphinxes is the Great Sphinx at Giza, built around 2500 BC by the pharaoh Khafre of 4th dynasty. It is 65 feet high, 260 feet long and 20 feet wide and faces east. The Great Sphinx has the body of a lion and the face of a man. It is the largest single-stone structure in the world. The face is broad and square in shape, with a royal cobra emblem embossed on the forehead. The body of this gigantic structure has paws, claws and a tail, just like a lion. Parts of head cloth can be seen behind the ears. Traces of paint near one ear show that it was colourful.

900 such sphinxes found in the temple of god Amun built by king Ramesses II. Some of the other famous sphinxes are granite sphinx of female Pharaoh Hatshepsut, alabaster sphinx of Memphis. Many sphinxes have been damaged over time due to many reasons like foreign invasion, humidity, pollution. Attempts are being made to preserve these grand monuments.

Ancient Egyptian civilisation is regarded as the most conservative and rigid ever. The basic patterns of Egyptian institutions, beliefs and artistic ideas were formed during the first few centuries and didn't change, reoccurring till the very end. The knowledge of Egyptian civilisation rests majorly on the tombs and their contents. The Egyptian concept was that each person should equip himself well for a happy afterlife, which leads to the vast repertoire of grave goods and myriad tomb paintings in the pyramids. An early development of tomb art can be seen in a fragment of the wall painting from Heirakonpolis, with standardised human and animal figures and large white boats.

The Old Kingdom developed much further in this field in trying to create a replica of the daily life of a living man for his soul(ka). The Hippopotamus Hunt at the tomb of Ti in Saqqara is a perfect example because of its landscape setting. The representation of the deceased on all tomb paintings of the Old kingdom was passive and static, as an onlooker of all the action around him. It might be a subtle way of conveying the death of the human body but the continuation of the living soul. During the Middle Kingdom a loosening of the established norms can be observed in the tomb paintings of the princes of Beni Hasan, carved in the rock.

A good example is the mural "Feeding the Oryxes" from the rock-cut tomb of Khnum-hotep, where the painter has experimented with foreshortening and spatial effects. The best of all tomb paintings are derived from the New Kingdom. The formulas of projecting an image onto a flat surface continued, but there is more naturalism in the figures. The figure of the deceased is not static anymore but involved in the whole action, and he is also brought down in scale. There is relaxation of the stiff rules of representation and the set themes once thought appropriate for tomb paintings. King Akhenaton, along with starting a new faith based on Aton , gave a new direction to artistic activity.

There was a temporary relaxation of the Egyptian preoccupation with life in the hereafter, and greater concern with life on earth. There grew a different, more naturalistic way of representing the human figure. The survival of the Amarna Style( as this art was called) is seen in the tomb of Tutankhamen. The paintings on the panels of a golden chest portray the king's mission to define himself as the imperial conquerer. The chest depicts the king as a hunter and a warrior, a double proclamation of his royal power.

Although by Tutankhamen's times, the Amarna style had almost vanished, some lingering features were still practised, but the Pharaohs after Akhenaton re-established the cult of Amen, and returned to the old manner of art. Illustrated papyrus scrolls became the essential equipments of all well to do tombs. The scroll of Hu-Nefer in the Theban necropolis is an excellent example that represents the final judgement of the deceased.

In the Egyptian pyramid of power, the rank of viziers was next to the Pharaoh. The vizier had the status of a Prime minister. 'tjaty' was the Egyptian title for the vizier. Viziers were the second important class of people in ancient Egypt. These trusted men often held other titles, such as the "Chief of the King's Works" or "Royal Chancellor of Lower Egypt". One of the later titles held by a vizier was the High Priest of Heliopolis.

In Egyptian art, viziers are usually depicted wearing a long robe which came up to the armpits. The garment, usually of pure white material, symbolized his impartiality. Until the 4th dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the vizier was exclusively the son of a king. From the 18th dynasty onward, the office was split between a northern and southern vizier, both holding an equal amount of power. But during Egypt's late period, only little about viziers is known. The position might have lost importance.

He was the highest court official and the deputy of the Pharaoh. But he was not of the royal blood. Successful ministers and especially the vizier were rewarded by large grants of land from the royal domain. The vizier therefore became extremely wealthy. The vizier wielded great power in Egypt and was both feared and respected. They were consulted by the king on all important matters. Documents had legality only if they had the seal of the vizier.

When weak kings reigned, viziers often took control of the country indirectly. In fact, viziers are often elevated to king like Ay, who succeeded Tutankhamen. The duties of viziers included appointing government officials, hearing legal disputes, conducting census, collecting taxes, controlling achieves, controlling the food supply and distribution, supervising and managing industries and controlling civil order.

In addition, young members of the royal family often served under the vizier. Imhotep of the 3rd dynasty was the vizier of the Pharaoh Djoser. He was responsible for the Step pyramid. Imhotep was regarded as the Son of Ptah, the Lord of all Builders. Scribes began a tradition of sprinkling a drop from their water bowl in honour of this great architect whenever they started work.

Records reveal the names of numerous viziers; only a few are listed below:

Dynasty  Vizier
3             Imhotep
4             Menkhaf
5             Ptah-hotep
6             Djau
8             Shemai
11            Amenemhat
18            Rekhmire
19            Nehy
20            Wennefer

The discovery of The Valley of the Kings was indeed momentous in the study of Egyptian civilisation. Since then, this site has become the heart of archaeological exploration and one of the most popular archaeological sites in the world. The valley is located on the western bank of the river Nile directly opposite to the Thebes, the modern day Luxor within the heart of the Theban Necropolis. It consists of the East Valley where most of the tombs are situated and the West Valley.

The valley is also known as The Valley of the Gates of the Kings. It was declared as the World Heritage Site in the year 1979. Various tombs and burials have been discovered and some of the famous Pharaohs buried in the location include Ramesses II, Ramssess IV, Ramesses IX, Ramesses VI, Tuthmose III, Seti I, Amenhotep II and so on. Amenhotep I, who was considered as the patron-god of the valley by the actual builders of the tombs. The Valley was used for primary burials from approximately 1539 BC to 1075 BC, and contains some 60 tombs.

Besides having the tombs of Pharaohs, the spot also has the tombs of famous nobles and officials and their wives and children. The quality of the rock in the Valley is very inconsistent ranging from finely-grained to coarse stone. Tombs were built, by cutting through various layers of limestone, each with its own quality. The shale layers expand when they comes to contact with water. During floods, tombs are damaged due to this. Most of the tombs were cut into the limestone following a similar pattern: three corridors, an antechamber and a sunken sarcophagus chamber.

These catacombs were harder to rob and were more easily concealed. East Valley is visited by more tourists as it has more tombs buried. The West Valley only contains the tombs of Amenhotep III and Ay, and some pits. The Valley began to be heavily plundered by the end of the New Kingdom. So the priests of the 20th and 21st Dynasty to open most of the tombs and move the mummies into three tombs in order to better protect them. Later most of these were moved to a single cache near Deir el-Bari. During the later Third Intermediate Period and later intrusive burials were introduced into many of the open tombs.


 The last known king to have built a tomb in the Valley was Ramesses XI. Almost all the tombs have been plundered heavily by robbers including the tomb of King Tut. The Valley today is a famous tourist centre. It is one of the most valuable sources from which knowledge on Egyptian life can be comprehensively obtained.

The social status of women in ancient Egypt was not equal to that of the men. However, Egypt has always been famous for its elegant royal queens. Some are famous for their beauty and some others for their significant contributions. There are three different titles, which all could refer to the word 'queen'; Hemet Nesw Weret, which was the king´s Great Royal Wife, next the Mwt Nesw, Mother of the King, and then the king´s other, lesser wives, Hemw Nesw.

The Great Royal Wife is often seen depicted beside the king, and was next to him in the hierarchy. Among the names of ancient queens which are quite lengthy, a few are mentioned below. The most famous of these is none other than the Queen Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt. She inherited the throne at the age of 18 when her father died. She married her brother like many other Egyptian queens and took the charge of the show to lead the nation on her own.

One of the most interesting facts about Cleopatra is that she was the first ruler of her dynasty, consisting of the Ptolemy family, to actually be able to speak the Egyptian language, along with eight others. She was known to be extremely intelligent and cunning. Her end came when the supporters of her brother and husband realised she was too independent and had to be dethroned. She was then exiled to Syria.

Queen MeritNith is the very first queen in the history of ancient Egypt actually recorded as having reigned. Her name meant 'beloved of Nit'. She was the Great Royal Wife of King Djet and the mother of King Den, all of the 1st Dynasty. She is thought to have ruled alone after the death of Djet while her son Den was very young. She was given a funerary structure at the Royal funerary enclosure at Abydos as well as funerary monument at Saqqara.

Queen Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten, is also one of the most famous of the queens of Egypt. She was renowned for her beauty. Nefertiti was the chief queen of Egypt during her husband's reign, at least up until the twelfth year. The mummy of Nefertiti remains missing. To date, only jewellery bearing her insignia has been found. Queen Hatsheput preferred to dress in men's clothing in order to prove her status as pharaoh. Upon the death of her father, she married her half brother as was customary, when he acceded to the throne.

Her rule continued successfully for some fifteen years, when she mysteriously vanished. It is thought that her nephew and his advisor might have plotted her death as he came of age. The mystery of her deaths seems destined to remain just that, no tomb or mummy of her have been ever found. Little is known about queen Nitocris. Another queen named Sobekneferu had her name inscribed in a cartouch. Her Horus name appears in a serekh beneath the cartouche: 'The Female Hawk, Beloved of Re' and the title 'Lady of the South and North'.

Queen Aahotep I was married to King Sekenen-Re Taa II. She was probably influential in driving out the Hyksos from Egypt. In her coffin was found a golden necklace with three examples of the 'Golden Fly', (or the 'Fly of Valour'), a honorific award given for excellence in military service. Queen Ahmose Nefertari was a New Kingdom influential queen with political and religious titles. She was the first one to carry the title of God's Wife of Amun. She was involved in the king's building projects.

 Ancient Egyptian Transportation
 Because the Nile flows the length of the country, boats and ships were the most important means of transport in Egypt since ancient times to the Muslim era. Ships are shown in the tables from the Naqada period (about 4000-3100 BC) and by the end of the Old Kingdom, wooden models of ships were often placed in tombs. These models reflect the many types of boats, the ancient Egyptians designed for different purposes. Reed rafts were made for hunting in the marshes. Papyrus boats were used by royalty for either daily activities or religious ceremonies. Large wooden boats were used to transport heavy goods and military purposes.

 During the Greco-Roman era, the Ptolemies built a large navy. Ptolemaic ships were made in a variety of styles known throughout the Hellenistic world. The Barides formed an important type of naval vessels. Vessels called Kerkuros were used for both naval and commercial purposes, while a smaller type of warship was called Lembos. Lembos these were closer to a boat and have been used to launch quick strikes. The most important types of merchant vessels was the largest ship called the Korbita who sailed around the Mediterranean in British Columbia the first and second centuries until the Kybaea became more frequent.Shipbuilding is also important for Muslims during the Muslim era.

 They established many shipbuilding centers along the Nile, among them Al-Fustat, Qalzim, Alexandria, and Tanis. Alexandria was a major port and its ships carrying goods from Ethiopia, India, China, and all ports of the Mediterranean Sea. In the Fatimid era, Egypt became one of the most powerful navy. For distances much shorter than would be traveled by boat, sedan chairs were the preferred mode of transportation in the Old Kingdom and Middle for the royal class. Sedan chairs seem to have disappeared after these periods. The officer would be sitting with the knees drawn to chest, holding a fan. The chairs usually have a thick cushion for comfort and file for support. The chairs rested on two long poles, including two or more servants lifted to carry the chair.Domestic animals such as donkeys and mules were the charge carriers most common in ancient Egypt and were used for agriculture.  

The donkeys were domesticated in the fourth millennium BC and were used almost exclusively for land travel up to the Persian period. The horses were brought to Egypt by the Hyksos invading army at the end of the Middle Kingdom. Horses were generally used to pull two-wheeled chariots rather than mounted. In the New Kingdom, Egyptians began horse breeding and horses belonged to the military elite and the ruling class.Occasional and infrequent mention of camel or dromedary hump may be encountered as part of the Early Dynastic period. But not before the foreign conquerors of Assyrians, Persians, and Alexander the Great were these animals brought in more in Egypt. By the Ptolemaic period, camels were used as the main animals for transportation across the desert.

Profited by the fertile river valley and abundant resources, the Egyptian society was essentially self-sufficient. This was because the needs of an agricultural community were basic. However, trade brought huge sum as revenue to the Egyptian population. Hieroglyphic inscriptions, Evidence from formal art, Discovery of foreign-styled items and Excavation of foreign materials constitute the important sources of trade. Trade partners emerged from different parts of the world.

Usage of seaway transport was advantageous to trade. Usually, business went smoothly as long as there was goodwill and both parties were honest. But abstract value system created many difficulties. Trade was carried out through barter system. Even after coined money was introduced in the second half of the first millennium BCE, barter continued to be widespread among the farming population for centuries.

In the fifth century BCE, foreign coins were introduced. At first these imported gold and silver pieces were used by the Egyptians as precious metal of standardized weight rather than true money. The conquest of Nubia had economic interests of bringing the rich Nubia gold mines. Farmers also use to grow crops such as the flax, parley and three different types of the wheat were available for the farming.

Flax was the important source for the textile fibre. Slave trade too existed. Ancient Egyptian trade has brought back certain innate culture of pottery to the people living at the Egypt. The products made out of mud are imported from various other countries. These products have drawn interests of the people to make it a point that this art of making pots are cultivated among the people.

Certain metallic components are imported and also certain metal raw materials were traded for benefit of people. In addition to agricultural produce and raw materials like gold and precious stones, artefacts were also exported. Granting credit to one another was probably quite widespread. Perhaps one of the parties did not have what the other wanted at the time of the exchange.

The custom of officially exchanging gifts between individuals of unequal status was called inw. It involved, apart from the economic value, a social element which resulted in an increase of prestige and honour of the giver. Most daily transactions were based on oral agreements, given the fact that the sums involved were often small, people could neither read nor write and scribes were not always available. Writing was employed for big amounts.

Overseas trade was mainly in the hands of royal emissaries. It is also probable that many inland merchants were agents of the crown or the great temple estates. Official Egyptian trade was handled by scribes as representatives of the king or by priests if a temple was involved.

"The only active force that arises out of possession is the fear of losing the object of possession".  a proverb from an ancient Egyptian temple . As the Egyptian community was primarily religious-oriented, places of worship called temples invariably formed a part of their polytheistic religious life. Though Egyptian temples served a variety of other purposes, worship of god was their chief purpose of establishment.

Temple, for ancient Egyptians was a cosmic centre from which the communication between man and the gods took place. Each city had a temple built for the god of the city. As the priests became more powerful, tombs became a part of great temples. Some temples were dedicated to major deities, some others to a number of deities. Some temples were dedicated to the sacred dead king. There were many forms of temples such as Ka temples, Sun temples, Coronation temples and others.

Due to the lack of wood, the temples were built of stone. There were two parts of the temple; the outer temple could be attended by the beginning initiates, and the inner temple was reserved for those who proved themselves worthy and ready to acquire sacred knowledge. In ancient Egypt temples there was also sometimes an exterior complex comprised of gardens and courtyards.

Pharaoh was the high priest for all gods. He was in charge of appointing high priests and other priests to perform duties to the gods. In an elaborate ceremony the new pharaoh would enter the temple, along with the high priests. Once inside the most exclusive chambers of the temple, rites would be performed which would transform the mere mortal pharaoh into a deity to be revered and worshipped by the Egyptian people.

Only the Pharaoh or the high priest in duty was allowed into the innermost chamber of the temple. The worshippers were never to come beyond the outer court .They could leave their offerings there. Priests were the 'servants of the god' and were to observe their duty by providing everything needed for the gods. The worst fate that could befall a city was failing to care for the temple of the patron god.

Failure in doing hid duty would result in the god getting angry and leaving the land. The Temple of Karnak at Luxor, The Great Temple of Abu Simbel, The Temple of Deir El Bahari, The Temple o Ramses II, The Temple of Ramses III, Great Temple of Aten, Temple of Dendera, Temple of Horus, Temple of Amenhotep I, Temple of Hathor are some the famous homes of gods in ancient Egypt.

Egyptians were the people who created miracles with everything they had. Significant technological advances were made in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, architecture, medicine, navigation, agriculture etc. Also, various kinds of tools made of stone, ivory, bronze, iron, copper were made use of.

Astronomy:

Both Upper and Lower Egypts had their own calendars. After unification, there developed a simplified civil calendar with twelve 30 day months, three seasons of four months each, plus an extra five days, giving a 365 year day but with no way of accounting for the extra quarter day each year.

Day and night were split into 24 units, each personified by a deity. A sundial with instructions shows that the daylight hours were at one time split into 10 units, with 12 hours for the night and an hour for the morning and evening twilights.

The excavated temple complexes astronomical alignments and the roofs of some of the buildings could have been used by observers to view the stars, calculate the hours at night and predict the sunrise for religious festivals. It is said that precision of the equinoxes was known in Egypt in ancient times itself.

Architecture:

The great pyramids built of brick or stone serve testimony to the Egyptian knowledge in architecture and construction. Egyptian monuments are among the largest constructions perceived in human history. The blocks of the pyramids are so heavy and big that tornadoes or even hurricanes cannot destroy them.

Pyramids of Giza and the great Sphinx are among world's greatest figures. Simple ramps, sleds and levers are the most obvious method for large scale pyramid construction .Temples and statues also include Egyptian architectural layout.

The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone building. Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrances of temples. Imhotep, who was included in the Egyptian pantheon, was the first documented engineer.

Medicine:

The Edwin Smith papyrus, an ancient document, attempts to describe and analyse the brain. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus.

But Medicines such as lizard blood were ineffective, in addition to being harmful. However, many of the discoveries paved way for longer life expectancy of the people living in that particular locality.

Agriculture:

Agriculture was the backbone of Egyptian economy. Through the use of ancient irrigation techniques and technology the Egyptians were able to level the field. The shaduf is a bucket, bag or basket at the end of a pole. It balances on a frame and has a heavy weight attached at the other end.

The user pulls down to fill the bucket from the water source (the Nile) and lets the weight pull the bucket of water up. It is then swung, or pivoted, around to the higher ground and emptied into a canal that went out to the field of crops. The fields were then reaped with that historically well known piece of farming technology, the ever-faithful sickle.

Other areas:

The word paper comes from the Egyptian word 'Papyrus'. The first use of papyrus paper is believed to have been in 4000 BC. The Egyptian book of the dead' was written in Papyrus. The people of Egypt developed one of the first decimal systems.

Some of advancements include new formulae found in the field of mathematics. The civilization is gifted with certain naturally talented mathematicians. The importance of the eminent black smith is always essential to obtain good quality weapons for the military.

The military bases are created all along the source of effective manpower and thereby rendering good supply of soldiers at the time of adversity and immediate cause.

Gold mining was another simple technology. Alluvial sands found on river beds were sifted through woolly fleece-lined bags held and shaken by two men. The earthy sand would pass through and gold was caught in the fleece.

The glassmaking knowledge of Egyptians was advanced. The glass beads were produced in a variety of colours. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity.

Stories, since time immemorial, have been told to each generation in all civilizations till the present age. Ancient Egyptians were in no way separate form this trend, the culture of storytelling flourished in Egypt during that time. Stories were told for their entertainment value as well as carried a hidden meaning, most often a moral.  The first concrete evidence of a story which had a date has been deduced to be from the Middle kingdom and the language is that of the same region and has classical undertones.

Unfortunately, most of the stories passed from word to mouth, orally from parents to child, storytellers to the masses without being penned down. People went around spreading these stories by oration and therefore, very few written versions are remaining.  However, thanks to the tradition of orally passing on the stories, a lot many of the most well known stories are being circulated to this day. Sinuhe is among the much more older and favourites of the stories. It was written in 6 papyruses and twenty four ostracas.

This story was written by a courtier in the first person, as a sort of a biography. He had gone from ancient Egypt to Asia after Pharaoh Amanamhat died. The reason of this flight is not given in the story. This is one of the few written stories that are still surviving.  Ancient Egyptian writings were more or less in the form of autobiographies and were written exceedingly well. The "weni", is an autobiography, one of the better known ones. This was taken from the tomb of Weni situated in Abydos. Weni was a courtier and was supposedly a confidante of the pharaoh Teti and Pepi. However, this account may be a trifle farfetched.

The "cow of heaven" and "destruction of mankind" are two books which came to be written during the second half of the 18th century upon the gold tomb of Tutenkhamen. These are myths preserved in stone, literally. This is a story of the god of sun, Ra was rebelled against by the world of men.  Then he sent Hathor in the shape of a lioness to destroy those who rebelled. But when Ra was recalled, Ra refused and had to be tricked in to come back. She drank red wine that could be mistaken as blood, and thereby saved the entire mankind from destruction.

The ancient Egyptians also had their folk tales or fairy tales. For example, the tale of two brothers, the prince and his fates and much later, the fable of Setne Kamwas, the offspring of Ramses II.  There were stories regarding the creation of the Lower and Upper Egypt. It began with the existence of the ocean and nothing else. The ancient Egyptians had a fantastic imagination; their stories bear witness to the fact. 

 Ancient Egypt Social Classes

The ancient Egyptian society had been perceived in a number of ways. Ramses the third, when looking at his subject thought of them as nobles, administrators, soldiers, servants and the general denizens of ancient Egypt. Whereas, Herodotus, a foreigner who visited Egypt during the ancient times viewed them as belonging to different classes. They were, distributed with respect to their jobs or professions. However, he did not put the slaves into any category. He did not consider them fit enough to be grouped together with the other men and women.

The social class of ancient Egypt was at different extremes. There existed a huge gap between the people from different social classes. This was prevalent ever since the Pre dynastic time and was further enhanced as time passed. At the time when ancient Egypt was unified, the small band of elite upper classes of men reigned along with the assistance of scribes who ran the administration. The administration presided over the general populace. Then came the peasants or the farmers and they were extremely poor, with a hand to mouth existence.

The labourers were absorbed instantly into the work and numerous projects everywhere. This phenomenon reached its absolute peak during times when the pyramids and the tombs and the temples were made. These jobs pulled in all the manual labour that could be bought. This development put the pharaoh in the utmost lofty position in the society. This immediately proceeded the time during which the king's wealth started diminishing which also led to the diminishing of the powers of the king and the royal families.

The noblemen and their families took up the mantle after this decline. Even the nobility, when they came into power, depended on the scribes to a very large extent. The scribes, therefore, continued to be in a position of power throughout the history of ancient Egypt. The nobility were separate from the centre of administration unlike those of the royal ones, who were mainly under the influence of the pharaoh. The scribes were the academicians and the scholars. They were recipients of a good and elite education consisting of reading, writing, mathematics, etc.

This ground knowledge enabled them to govern the country in a just and efficient manner. They were also trained in some specific professional thing, for example, medicine, mathematics, architecture, etc. They were also ranked according to their capabilities even in this selected group of people. The priests and military personnel were taken from all strata of the society and were a completely different group of their own. The labour was in majority throughout. They were mainly peasants, farm workers, etc and looked down upon by everyone alike.

They were worked hard and often ruthlessly. The outcasts also existed; however, not much information about them is available. All this apart, most people in ancient Egypt were complacent with their status and position in the society.

Until the invasion of Hykos in the Second Intermediate Period, , a proper army remained absent in ancient Egypt. Prior to it, there were only palace guards and trade escorts. When Egypt established a well-built army, the need for soldiers emerged. The Ancient Egyptian soldier had either decided that this was a good career choice and could lead to security and advancement or the other type of soldier was the conscript who joined the armed forces of Egypt against his will. This was because people were often forced to join the military.

The Ancient Egyptian Military consisted of both an army and a navy. Some people would cause themselves damage, such as breaking their thumbs to exclude them from conscription into the army. But some military men, who were active and willing, even rose to the level of rulers. A raw recruit in the army underwent rigorous training. A soldier first received a regimented hair cut and in later Egyptian periods was issued with a coat of wadded leather and a leather or bronze helmet. The Ancient Egyptian soldier was expected to achieve a high level of fitness and was under the authority of the drill master.

Wrestling, Sand-bag lifting, Archery, Knife-throwing, Stick-fighting- all formed a part of the training. An Ancient Egyptian soldier was expected to be able to cover 32 kilometres in one day. Discipline was strict and punishments, by beatings, were severe. The role of the Ancient Egyptian soldier was to either defend the country or be prepared to make pre-emptive strikes against their enemies. A series of fortresses were built on strategic locations on each of the borders of Egypt.

Many of the soldiers were sent to these forts, a boring, monotonous but relatively safe role which brought little reward. The rewards to a brave soldier included not only promotion and medals but also goods, grants of lands, pensions on retirement and even slaves. As the economy of Ancient Egypt was based on barter system, a low-ranked Egyptian soldier was paid ten loaves of bread and jugs of beer a day. Wages increased with higher rank of the soldier. Soldiers were allowed to plunder the enemy when they won a battle.

The soldier was equipped with a variety of different weapons which, by the period of the New Kingdom included the clubs and maces, as well as axes, knives, and swords; they were also handy with projectile weapons such as spears, bows and arrows, and javelins. Shields were the main bit of defensive equipment, with the occasional use of limited body armour. The Egyptians also used siege weaponry when necessary, such as towers and battering rams.

These soldiers were divided into 4 divisions of 5000 who were named after the gods Seth, Amun, Ptah and Re. Each of these divisions was divided into 20 companies which in turn consisted of 250 soldiers. These were finally divided into 5 platoons of fifty men.

The chain of command, in order of rank can be summarised as:

1. King, commander in chief
2. General, or overseer of the army, who reported directly to the king
3. Lieutenant commander, serving as senior officer
4. Overseer of the Nubian frontier and Mediterranean coast fortresses
5. Overseer of garrison troops
6. Troop commander, in charge of several regiments, a brigade or a fortress
7. Captain of the troop
8. Commander of 250 soldiers
9. Standard-bearer, controlling 200 men
10. "Greatest of Fifty", the lowest commander

The Egyptian seasons corresponded with the flooding of the river Nile; Akhet (Flooding season) from June to October, Peret (Growing season),October to February and Shemu (Harvesting season), February to June. Akhet consisted of the months of Thoth, Paophi, Athyr and Khoyak; Peret of Tybi, Mekhir, Phamenat and Pharmuti; Shemu of Pakhons, Payni, Epiphi and Mesore.

There were three seasons.

Akhet

It was the flooding season from June- September. The water, mud and silt from the river was washed up over the river banks creating a fertile growing area. All the fields were flooded during this time and naturally farming did not take place. Farmers took to other jobs during this season. People went around in boats.

Peret

It was the growing season from October to February. When floods receded, farmers ploughed the soil ready for farming. They had large ploughs pulled by oxen and hand ploughs

Shemu

Shemu was the harvesting season from March to May. The fully grown crops were cut down and removed before the next flooding season. Reapers cut the ripe corn with wooden sickles edged with sharp flints. Women and children followed behind the reapers to collect any fallen ears of corn.

The name of this game snt means to pass, which refers to passing in the netherworld or the after life. However, this idea of the passing to the netherworld developed since the New Kingdom when it acquired a magical-religious value and in the introductory formula in Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead, it was considered essential that the deceased played a game against an invisible opponent to ensure his own survival. It was a popular game from the earliest times in Egypt that’s why it was included in the funerary furniture.

We have some proofs which indicate that it was played everywhere and by all social levels from the Archaic Period onwards :

1-    Parts of a Senet game was discovered at the tomb of king Djet of the 1st Dynasty (displayed at the ground floor of the Egyptian Museum in the showcase of Games from the Archaic Period)

2-    The official Hesy-Re has a scene in his tomb at Saqqara showing him playing Senet.

3-    Prince Re-Hotep mentions the Senet game in his list of funerary objects.

4-    We found some ostraca belonging to the builders of the pyramids showing them while playing Senet.

5-    Ramses III was also shown in his temple at Madinet Habu while playing Senet with his daughters.


How to play Senet:

Nobody knows exactly how it was played but there are some suggestions. It consists of 3 rows of 10 squares; each player had an equal number of playing pieces probably about 5 or 7 pieces different from their opponent’s pieces. These pieces were generally pawn-like or reel-shaped . Most probably they were placed inside the drawer of this game, but maybe these pieces were not the original ones of the game and most probably the original ones were stolen because they were made out of precious metals like gold or silver.

Movement of the pieces was dictated by throwing the knucklebones or the casting (throwing) sticks; they act like our modern day dice . The main idea of this game was to move the gaming pieces over the 30 squares in a backward “S” shape. The aim was to eliminate the pieces of the other player. Most of the squares are plain except for the final 5 squares which were inscribed with special characters maybe to explain some rules of this game, the mw sign (water) for example might have symbolized something dangerous or other signs could be of advantage to the player like the nfrw sign. Certainly it was a game of chance, the moves being determined by the throw either of knucklebones or of four casting sticks, both of which were found in the tomb.

The casting sticks were of two kinds, one pair having ends in the form of the tips of human fingers and the ends of the other being carved in the form of a long-eared canine animal, probably a fox. Both pairs consist of black ebony in the upper half and white ivory in the lower half. Perhaps the number of points scored from a cast depended on the number of sticks that finished with the white or black side uppermost when they were cast.

The ability to read and write was important in ancient Egypt because literacy commanded both paid jobs and respect of fellow beings. But it does not mean that Egypt was a highly literate society. Only few people were educated. The practical people of Egypt taught their children only those subjects which would be useful in their future. During the Old Kingdom, there is no evidence that any formal schools existed, except perhaps at court. Princes taught younger princes, and favoured youths were tutored with the king's own children.

During the New Kingdom there were at least two schools in Thebes, one in the Mut Temple, the other at the back of the Ramesseum. There may have been a third near the Valley of Deir el-Medina, where the children of workmen were taught. There was no set length for schooling. Hieroglyphics is the Egyptian writing which was developed around 3100 BC. It was harder than our common alphabet system. Scribes were the few literate people who knew to read and write. They knew hieroglyphics.

Schools run by them were called scribe schools. Boys belonging to wealthy families were sent to scribe schools and were trained to become scribes. There were prince's schools to train young princes. It is unfortunate that girls were not allowed to go to schools. They were to learn from home taught by their mother or father or a private tutor. Otherwise they were taught household work, singing, dancing, weaving, cooking etc. Only boys could go to schools and learn. Very few girls could read or write, and only the richest ones.

Boys went to school master's house for learning. They walked to their destination early in the morning carrying the food prepared from home. They were dismissed at noon. Memorisation and copying ancient scripts were the main lessons to be learned. As papyrus was too expensive, the school master sometimes gave the students white, polished limestone. They wrote with reed brushes dipped in black or red ink. The ink, which was made of water and soot, was held on a pallet. The boys dipped the brushes into the ink, and wrote about ten signs until they needed more ink. Then they dunked the brushes into the water cup and dipped them into the ink again.

The children of farmers and fishermen had even less formal education. They learned how to sow, glean, and harvest, tending poultry and cattle, make nets and catch and prepare fish. Children were often included in scenes of harvesting, fishing, or caring for cattle.

Ancient Egypt had an extremely religious based culture .The social order was directed by innumerable number of gods and goddesses. But this does not mean that the people had primitive technologies. Egypt had some advanced scientific technologies, with special emphasis in the fields of irrigation and medicine. There was no word in ancient Egypt to mean the word 'science', though the word Rh, "to know" comes closest. However, the excessive influence of religion limited the ability to understand natural phenomena and develop new technologies.

While some hail Egyptian pyramids as symbols of their scientific advancement, some others regard them as achievements of human subordination, for they believe that the Egyptians were not particularly advanced technologically. But it cannot be denied that ancient scientists worked in fields of astronomy, alchemy, biology, chemistry, dentistry, anaesthesiology, geography, mineralogy etc.

Metallurgy in particular was carried on with an elaborate technique and mining was an important occupation of the people. Even as early as 3400 B.C, the Egyptians had an intimate knowledge of copper ores and of processes of extracting the metal. During the fourth and subsequent dynasties, metals seem to have been entirely monopolies of the Court, the management of the mines and quarries being entrusted to the highest officials. Iron was also prized highly by the Egyptians. Bronze, tin and cobalt have been detected in Egypt.

Vast quantities of gold were extracted from the mines. Over hundreds of ancient gold workings have been discovered. The gold mines in Nubia and other parts of the Egyptian empire seem to have been very efficiently designed and controlled, though with a callous disregard for the human element employed. Mercury is stated to have been found in Egyptian tombs of from 1500-1600 B.C. Some metals were associated with some planets. For example, Gold was associated with the sun and the silver with the moon.

A papyrus called Leyden papyrus comprises about seventy-five recipes pertaining to the making of alloys, for soldering metals, for colouring the surfaces of metals, for testing the quality of or purity of metals, or for imitating the precious metals. Egyptians from very ancient dates were familiar with the art of glass making. Glass jars, figures and ornaments have been discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing.

Egyptian glass articles were of coloured glass, often beautifully patterned. The Egyptians developed a well established writing system although only a small percent of the population was literate. Writing was done in Papyrus which had a lengthy and expensive manufacturing process. A Complex writing system consisting of thousands of pictorial symbols was called hieroglyphics. In mathematics, there were good approximations for, and a method of calculating the surface and volumes of various geometric shapes.

Rhind Papyrus is an important mathematics text. Money was not discovered in Egypt and barter system prevailed in the market. The Egyptian concern for body preservation, mummification and anatomy, allowed this culture to develop highly advanced medical practices. These important advances included knowledge about a large variety of Herbal remedies, medicinal drugs and some contraceptive devices. Egyptian medical knowledge was transferred by the Greeks into other Middle Eastern and European civilizations.


The 'Smith Papyrus', and to a lesser extent the 'Ebers Papyrus', give us a very favourable idea of the medicine, anatomy, and physiology of the Egyptians. Medicine was specialised. Egyptian discoveries such as the leap year system, calendars and clocks are followed by the world community even today.