Tutankhamon (Tutenkh-amen-amun, 1341 BC - 1323 BC) was an Egyptian pharaoh, 12th ruler of the 18th dynasty (ruled c.1333 BC - 1323 BC), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. Tutankhamun ascended the throne at the age of 9 yrs and ruled until his death, ten yrs later, at the age of 19. His throne name was Neb-Kheperu-Re, which means "Lord of Manifestations is Re".

Prior to Howard Carter's discovery of his tomb, almost nothing was known of him and interestingly, the one disappointment in Carter's discovery was that there was little documentation found within his tomb. Therefore, we still know relatively little about Tutankhamon. Yet, Tutankhamon is, in modern times, the most famous of the Pharaohs, and the only one to have a nickname in popular culture ("King Tut").

Life:

Tutankamun was not given this name at birth, but rather Tutankhaten (meaning "Living Image of the Aten), squarely placing him in the line of pharaohs following Akhenaten, the heretic pharaoh, who was most likely his father. He changed his name in year two of his rule to Tutankhamun (which means "Living Image of Amon, which is actually a reference to Karnak). When he became king, he married his half sister, Ankhesenepatan, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn - their mummies were discovered in his tomb.

King Tut was the result of an incestuous relationship and, because of that, may have suffered from several genetic defects that contributed to his early death. His mother was one of Akhenaten's five sisters, although it is not known which one. His congenital flaws are more common among the children of incest.

Reign:

Given his age, the king must have had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb, the Vizier Ay, and Maya the "Overseer of the Treasury". Horemheb records that the king appointed him Lord of the Land as Hereditary Prince to maintain law. In his third reignal year, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. A move was made, probably under the direction of Ay and Horemheb, to return Egypt to its traditional ancient religion.

He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. His building work at Luxor included the continuation of the entrance colonnades of the Amenhotep III temple, including associated statues. As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Thebes and Karnak, where he dedicated a temple to Amun, embellished with images of Amun, Amunet and Khonsu.

We also know, mostly from fragments, that he built at Memphis. At Kawa, in the far south, he built a temple. Pair of granite lions from that temple flanks the entrance to the Egyptian Sculpture Gallery at the British Museum. Military wise, little happened during the reign of Tutankhamun. The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb.

Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. There are paintings in the tomb of Horemheb and as well as the tomb of Huy that seem to confirm these campaigns, though it is unlikely that the young Tutankhamun actually took part in the military actions directly. The campaigns in Palestine/Syria met with little success, but those in Nubia appear to have gone much better.


Death:

Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun was assassinated, the general consensus is that his death was accidental. CT scan taken in 2005 shows that he had badly broken his leg shortly before his death, and that the leg had become infected. He was infected with the most severe strain of malaria several times in his short life. It is believed that these two conditions combined led to his death.

During the ancient Egyptian period people mostly travelled barefoot. It is believed that since the temperature in Egypt was very high throughout the year, people gave less importance to wearing footwear. There is hardly any record to suggest that the Egyptians wore shoes or any other form of footwear.

The ancient Egyptians began wearing sandals during the early years of the New Kingdom rule. The sandals used by these people were very simple and were made either by using straw, reeds or leather. The wealthy people wore leather sandals and these lasted for a longer time than the sandals which were made using straw or reeds.

The sandals were worn by all people belonging to all the classes except those who were extremely poor. The sandals were decorated by using beads, jewels; some also had buckles on the straps made from precious metals. For the most part, the ancient Egyptians walked without wearing sandals or shoes. Sandals were worn by people on special events. The gold and wood sandals are known to have been made in the ancient Egyptian period.

During the Middle and New Kingdoms time, the sandals were commonly used. The use of covered shoes by the ancient Egyptians is not very well known. However some records suggest that shoes were made by weaving palm fiber and grass. In the Early Middle Kingdom, shoes were a modification of sandals.

Shoes had straps between the toes and were joined to the sides at the heel. It also had leather cover which protected the feet. The Hittites settled in Anatolian highlands wore shoes with turned up toes. The Egyptians during the New Kingdom period are said to be influenced by the Hittites and began using shoes.

Egypt is one of the countries in Africa and the Middle East. The ancient name for Egypt is Kemet meaning 'black land'. It had obtained its name owing to the fertile black soil found on the plains of the Nile river which flows through Egypt. Egypt is also known for its historical monuments like the Giza pyramid complex and even the Egyptian civilization holds a lot of importance.

Egypt is a country which has political and cultural significance for the Middle East. Egypt derived its English name from various sources like the French word Egypte, from Latin Aegyptus and ancient Greek Aigyptos. Facts include farming, paintings, education, religious beliefs and other things that related to and explained the Egyptian lifestyle.

Farming in Egypt

One of the fundamental reasons that attributed Egypt to flourish was the fertile black soil along the Nile river which flowed through Egypt. Farming was a significant activity carried on by the ancient Egyptians. During that time, many farmers were experts in cultivating wheat, vegetables, a variety of fruits and onions.

Other items of farming included barley, flax, leeks, garlic, beans, grapes, figs etc. Wheat was used for making bread, barley for beer and Flax was integral for textile fiber. Papyrus reeds which grew naturally on Nile river were used making sandals, boats, paper, mats and baskets. Farming was carried out in all the seasons, except when it flooded. During floods people avoided farming.

Animals like goat, cattle oxen, pigs, ducks, etc were kept by the Egyptian people for their milk, meat and using them in farming. In the ancient Egypt irrigation was classified into catch basin, shaduf and dykes. Shaduf was functional in the high lying regions. The different types of irrigation helped in amplifying both the quality and quantity of crops thus making Egypt a prosperous nation.

Paintings in Egypt

The Egyptian paintings were basically dedicated to a dead person. Paintings were a way of expressing the intention of its maker that the deceased should have a good life after death. Many paintings show the whole journey after death. Also, there was a practice of painting on the tombs the things the dead person did before his death and what the deceased hoped he would keep doing forever.

Paintings were a source of keeping the history alive. The paintings also showed how the Egyptians lived their life and their belief about death and life after death was. Another important aspect of the Egyptian paintings was the depiction of animals. The primary colors used for painting were red, green, blue, gold and black.

The Egyptians considered painting as a way of providing the dead a support which enabled him to carry on his journey after death. The essence of the Egyptian paintings was its complete nature and less importance was given to the beautification of the painting. It was very essential for the maker of the painting to conserve everything he drew permanently. The painting was made by its maker by using his memory so that everything he includes in the paintings remains intact forever.

Costumes worn in Egypt

Clothes were primarily made from white linen. The Egyptian people also used wool. However, clothes made from wool were prohibited in the temples as they were made from animals. Egyptian people believed that wool should not touch the skin and so was made in that fashion. Men wore loincloths or short skirts. Women generally wore robes or tight dresses. Some of the dresses had some straps which concealed the breasts and the others exposed them.

However much depended on the fashion that was prevalent then. Children during the Egyptian time did not wear clothes until they reach adolescence. The clothes fashion was simple in the initial years of the Egyptian rule but it became complex at the fag end of the New Kingdom. Clothes pattern was determined by the occupation of a person. Farmers wore short skirts while a poor person wore fewer clothes.

Egyptian Pharaohs

Pharaoh is a modern title given to ancient Egyptian rulers. However, the Kings were not referred to as Pharaoh by the ancient Egyptians. The term 'Pharaoh' was basically used by Greek and Hebrews. The word par'o in Hebrew referred to the word 'pr' in Egyptian language which meant 'the great house'. The term 'Pharaoh' was always used in relation to the Royal Palace and it meant for the life, prosperity and health of the palace.

From the fifteenth century BC Pharaoh was used as a synonym to King. However, the first use of the word 'pharaoh' can be traced to the New Kingdom during the middle of the eighteenth dynasty. After 2000 BC, Pharaoh was referred to by five names, four of them being his throne names and one was the name given to him at the time of his birth.

The late Egyptian word, the par'o word was reconstructed as per the Ancient Greek and Late Latin words pronounced as 'Pharaoh'. It was from this letter that the English word 'Pharaoh' was obtained. The ancient Egyptian people believed that Pharaoh was God Horus, the son of God Re or the Sun God. On the death of a Pharaoh it was assumed that he should be united with the sun.

Religious Beliefs

The ancient Egyptians strongly believed in God and life after death. The rule of Pharaohs was laid on the foundation of Divine Rights of Kings. The Egyptians were of the view that to please gods they should make some offerings and pray to god. Gods were worshiped in temples that were under the care of the priests who acted on behalf of the King.


The statue of the God was placed in the heart of the temple. It was only on selected few occasions that the statue of the god was open for public worship. After the New Kingdom, the role of the King as a mediator between God and people received less emphasis. In fact, the priests created a system of revelation wherein people could directly communicate with God.

Another dominant belief was that humans are made of physical and spiritual aspects and every individual has his own shadow, soul, life force and a name. It was believed that heart was the place for emotions and thoughts. After the death of the person, the final goal of the deceased was to unite his life force and soul to be regarded as the 'blessed dead'.

Culture of Ancient Egypt

The culture consisted of housing patterns, food, architecture, etc. The Egyptians had a staple diet of bread, beer along with vegetables like onions, garlic, fruits like date and fig. Meat and wine were consumed by everyone in general on certain occasions while the rich had it very frequently. The social ranking of an individual was a deciding factor in the food he could consume. The rich could afford a variety of food items while the poor were forced to stick to the normal food they could afford.

Beer and Wine were customary drinks for all classes. Honey was used instead of sugar. Butter and cheese was served at banquets held by the rich. The average people lived in mud-bricks while the rich people lived in double-thick bricks which controlled the room temperature. Nobles living in palaces had huge structures and ornamented walls and floors. Construction of buildings was sanctioned and funded by the state for religious purposes. It also symbolized the re-inforcing the power of the Pharaoh.

Language of Ancient Egypt

Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language which was spoken in Egypt till the 10th century AD. The language is associated to Berber and Semitic languages like Arabic and Hebrew. After this period, it continued to be in use as the liturgical language of the Egyptians, Christians, Copts. The Old Egyptian language was spoken for around 500 years from 2600 BC onwards.

It was the language spoken in the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. Middle Egyptian was spoken for around 700 years from 2000 BC. It was often dubbed as Classical Egyptian and was known from various textual evidence. It however survived till some centuries AD despite the usage of Late Egyptian language.

Latin was spoken in the middle ages. Demotic was a spoken language till the 5th century AD. Demotic language is a mixture of Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic that was prevalent in the Delta and the stage of Egyptian language between Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic period. Coptic was the last language that was adopted by the ancient Egyptians.

Sphinxes are majestic monuments of Egyptian civilisation. Sphinxes were in the forms of tombs so that the tombs inside could be guarded. The name 'sphinx' which means 'strangler' was first given by the Greeks to a fabulous creature which had the head of a woman and the body of a lion and the wings of a bird. However some believe that the name may come from the Egyptian phrase 'shesep ankh', which means living image. Worship of sun god Ra is associated with the origin of sphinx.

The origin of sphinx dates back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt. First sphinxes were made by the rulers of fourth dynasty. They were carved out of a single knoll of stone and have the head of a man with the face of a pharaoh, a ram, or a hawk. It has the body, legs, and tail of a lion. The sphinx has no markings to date it. The Egyptians used names such as "balhib" or "bilhaw" for these structures, as texts suggest. Most of them are male, but female sphinxes were not unknown. The face of a sphinx usually portrays a pharaoh, as he is supposed to be an incarnation of the sun god.

The riddle of the sphinx is interesting. If someone walks by the sphinx, it would ask them a question, "What has one voice, and yet goes from four legs, to two legs, to three legs?" Human being was the answer because he crawled in his childhood and develops as an adult with two legs. Finally when he turned old, he was to carry a stick which was the third leg. The answerer would be eaten by the sphinx if his answer was incorrect.

The oldest and the most prominent among all sphinxes is the Great Sphinx at Giza, built around 2500 BC by the pharaoh Khafre of 4th dynasty. It is 65 feet high, 260 feet long and 20 feet wide and faces east. The Great Sphinx has the body of a lion and the face of a man. It is the largest single-stone structure in the world. The face is broad and square in shape, with a royal cobra emblem embossed on the forehead. The body of this gigantic structure has paws, claws and a tail, just like a lion. Parts of head cloth can be seen behind the ears. Traces of paint near one ear show that it was colourful.

900 such sphinxes found in the temple of god Amun built by king Ramesses II. Some of the other famous sphinxes are granite sphinx of female Pharaoh Hatshepsut, alabaster sphinx of Memphis. Many sphinxes have been damaged over time due to many reasons like foreign invasion, humidity, pollution. Attempts are being made to preserve these grand monuments.

The social status of women in ancient Egypt was not equal to that of the men. However, Egypt has always been famous for its elegant royal queens. Some are famous for their beauty and some others for their significant contributions. There are three different titles, which all could refer to the word 'queen'; Hemet Nesw Weret, which was the king´s Great Royal Wife, next the Mwt Nesw, Mother of the King, and then the king´s other, lesser wives, Hemw Nesw.

The Great Royal Wife is often seen depicted beside the king, and was next to him in the hierarchy. Among the names of ancient queens which are quite lengthy, a few are mentioned below. The most famous of these is none other than the Queen Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt. She inherited the throne at the age of 18 when her father died. She married her brother like many other Egyptian queens and took the charge of the show to lead the nation on her own.

One of the most interesting facts about Cleopatra is that she was the first ruler of her dynasty, consisting of the Ptolemy family, to actually be able to speak the Egyptian language, along with eight others. She was known to be extremely intelligent and cunning. Her end came when the supporters of her brother and husband realised she was too independent and had to be dethroned. She was then exiled to Syria.

Queen MeritNith is the very first queen in the history of ancient Egypt actually recorded as having reigned. Her name meant 'beloved of Nit'. She was the Great Royal Wife of King Djet and the mother of King Den, all of the 1st Dynasty. She is thought to have ruled alone after the death of Djet while her son Den was very young. She was given a funerary structure at the Royal funerary enclosure at Abydos as well as funerary monument at Saqqara.

Queen Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten, is also one of the most famous of the queens of Egypt. She was renowned for her beauty. Nefertiti was the chief queen of Egypt during her husband's reign, at least up until the twelfth year. The mummy of Nefertiti remains missing. To date, only jewellery bearing her insignia has been found. Queen Hatsheput preferred to dress in men's clothing in order to prove her status as pharaoh. Upon the death of her father, she married her half brother as was customary, when he acceded to the throne.

Her rule continued successfully for some fifteen years, when she mysteriously vanished. It is thought that her nephew and his advisor might have plotted her death as he came of age. The mystery of her deaths seems destined to remain just that, no tomb or mummy of her have been ever found. Little is known about queen Nitocris. Another queen named Sobekneferu had her name inscribed in a cartouch. Her Horus name appears in a serekh beneath the cartouche: 'The Female Hawk, Beloved of Re' and the title 'Lady of the South and North'.

Queen Aahotep I was married to King Sekenen-Re Taa II. She was probably influential in driving out the Hyksos from Egypt. In her coffin was found a golden necklace with three examples of the 'Golden Fly', (or the 'Fly of Valour'), a honorific award given for excellence in military service. Queen Ahmose Nefertari was a New Kingdom influential queen with political and religious titles. She was the first one to carry the title of God's Wife of Amun. She was involved in the king's building projects.

"The only active force that arises out of possession is the fear of losing the object of possession".  a proverb from an ancient Egyptian temple . As the Egyptian community was primarily religious-oriented, places of worship called temples invariably formed a part of their polytheistic religious life. Though Egyptian temples served a variety of other purposes, worship of god was their chief purpose of establishment.

Temple, for ancient Egyptians was a cosmic centre from which the communication between man and the gods took place. Each city had a temple built for the god of the city. As the priests became more powerful, tombs became a part of great temples. Some temples were dedicated to major deities, some others to a number of deities. Some temples were dedicated to the sacred dead king. There were many forms of temples such as Ka temples, Sun temples, Coronation temples and others.

Due to the lack of wood, the temples were built of stone. There were two parts of the temple; the outer temple could be attended by the beginning initiates, and the inner temple was reserved for those who proved themselves worthy and ready to acquire sacred knowledge. In ancient Egypt temples there was also sometimes an exterior complex comprised of gardens and courtyards.

Pharaoh was the high priest for all gods. He was in charge of appointing high priests and other priests to perform duties to the gods. In an elaborate ceremony the new pharaoh would enter the temple, along with the high priests. Once inside the most exclusive chambers of the temple, rites would be performed which would transform the mere mortal pharaoh into a deity to be revered and worshipped by the Egyptian people.

Only the Pharaoh or the high priest in duty was allowed into the innermost chamber of the temple. The worshippers were never to come beyond the outer court .They could leave their offerings there. Priests were the 'servants of the god' and were to observe their duty by providing everything needed for the gods. The worst fate that could befall a city was failing to care for the temple of the patron god.

Failure in doing hid duty would result in the god getting angry and leaving the land. The Temple of Karnak at Luxor, The Great Temple of Abu Simbel, The Temple of Deir El Bahari, The Temple o Ramses II, The Temple of Ramses III, Great Temple of Aten, Temple of Dendera, Temple of Horus, Temple of Amenhotep I, Temple of Hathor are some the famous homes of gods in ancient Egypt.

Until the invasion of Hykos in the Second Intermediate Period, , a proper army remained absent in ancient Egypt. Prior to it, there were only palace guards and trade escorts. When Egypt established a well-built army, the need for soldiers emerged. The Ancient Egyptian soldier had either decided that this was a good career choice and could lead to security and advancement or the other type of soldier was the conscript who joined the armed forces of Egypt against his will. This was because people were often forced to join the military.

The Ancient Egyptian Military consisted of both an army and a navy. Some people would cause themselves damage, such as breaking their thumbs to exclude them from conscription into the army. But some military men, who were active and willing, even rose to the level of rulers. A raw recruit in the army underwent rigorous training. A soldier first received a regimented hair cut and in later Egyptian periods was issued with a coat of wadded leather and a leather or bronze helmet. The Ancient Egyptian soldier was expected to achieve a high level of fitness and was under the authority of the drill master.

Wrestling, Sand-bag lifting, Archery, Knife-throwing, Stick-fighting- all formed a part of the training. An Ancient Egyptian soldier was expected to be able to cover 32 kilometres in one day. Discipline was strict and punishments, by beatings, were severe. The role of the Ancient Egyptian soldier was to either defend the country or be prepared to make pre-emptive strikes against their enemies. A series of fortresses were built on strategic locations on each of the borders of Egypt.

Many of the soldiers were sent to these forts, a boring, monotonous but relatively safe role which brought little reward. The rewards to a brave soldier included not only promotion and medals but also goods, grants of lands, pensions on retirement and even slaves. As the economy of Ancient Egypt was based on barter system, a low-ranked Egyptian soldier was paid ten loaves of bread and jugs of beer a day. Wages increased with higher rank of the soldier. Soldiers were allowed to plunder the enemy when they won a battle.

The soldier was equipped with a variety of different weapons which, by the period of the New Kingdom included the clubs and maces, as well as axes, knives, and swords; they were also handy with projectile weapons such as spears, bows and arrows, and javelins. Shields were the main bit of defensive equipment, with the occasional use of limited body armour. The Egyptians also used siege weaponry when necessary, such as towers and battering rams.

These soldiers were divided into 4 divisions of 5000 who were named after the gods Seth, Amun, Ptah and Re. Each of these divisions was divided into 20 companies which in turn consisted of 250 soldiers. These were finally divided into 5 platoons of fifty men.

The chain of command, in order of rank can be summarised as:

1. King, commander in chief
2. General, or overseer of the army, who reported directly to the king
3. Lieutenant commander, serving as senior officer
4. Overseer of the Nubian frontier and Mediterranean coast fortresses
5. Overseer of garrison troops
6. Troop commander, in charge of several regiments, a brigade or a fortress
7. Captain of the troop
8. Commander of 250 soldiers
9. Standard-bearer, controlling 200 men
10. "Greatest of Fifty", the lowest commander

The ability to read and write was important in ancient Egypt because literacy commanded both paid jobs and respect of fellow beings. But it does not mean that Egypt was a highly literate society. Only few people were educated. The practical people of Egypt taught their children only those subjects which would be useful in their future. During the Old Kingdom, there is no evidence that any formal schools existed, except perhaps at court. Princes taught younger princes, and favoured youths were tutored with the king's own children.

During the New Kingdom there were at least two schools in Thebes, one in the Mut Temple, the other at the back of the Ramesseum. There may have been a third near the Valley of Deir el-Medina, where the children of workmen were taught. There was no set length for schooling. Hieroglyphics is the Egyptian writing which was developed around 3100 BC. It was harder than our common alphabet system. Scribes were the few literate people who knew to read and write. They knew hieroglyphics.

Schools run by them were called scribe schools. Boys belonging to wealthy families were sent to scribe schools and were trained to become scribes. There were prince's schools to train young princes. It is unfortunate that girls were not allowed to go to schools. They were to learn from home taught by their mother or father or a private tutor. Otherwise they were taught household work, singing, dancing, weaving, cooking etc. Only boys could go to schools and learn. Very few girls could read or write, and only the richest ones.

Boys went to school master's house for learning. They walked to their destination early in the morning carrying the food prepared from home. They were dismissed at noon. Memorisation and copying ancient scripts were the main lessons to be learned. As papyrus was too expensive, the school master sometimes gave the students white, polished limestone. They wrote with reed brushes dipped in black or red ink. The ink, which was made of water and soot, was held on a pallet. The boys dipped the brushes into the ink, and wrote about ten signs until they needed more ink. Then they dunked the brushes into the water cup and dipped them into the ink again.

The children of farmers and fishermen had even less formal education. They learned how to sow, glean, and harvest, tending poultry and cattle, make nets and catch and prepare fish. Children were often included in scenes of harvesting, fishing, or caring for cattle.

Ancient Egypt had an extremely religious based culture .The social order was directed by innumerable number of gods and goddesses. But this does not mean that the people had primitive technologies. Egypt had some advanced scientific technologies, with special emphasis in the fields of irrigation and medicine. There was no word in ancient Egypt to mean the word 'science', though the word Rh, "to know" comes closest. However, the excessive influence of religion limited the ability to understand natural phenomena and develop new technologies.

While some hail Egyptian pyramids as symbols of their scientific advancement, some others regard them as achievements of human subordination, for they believe that the Egyptians were not particularly advanced technologically. But it cannot be denied that ancient scientists worked in fields of astronomy, alchemy, biology, chemistry, dentistry, anaesthesiology, geography, mineralogy etc.

Metallurgy in particular was carried on with an elaborate technique and mining was an important occupation of the people. Even as early as 3400 B.C, the Egyptians had an intimate knowledge of copper ores and of processes of extracting the metal. During the fourth and subsequent dynasties, metals seem to have been entirely monopolies of the Court, the management of the mines and quarries being entrusted to the highest officials. Iron was also prized highly by the Egyptians. Bronze, tin and cobalt have been detected in Egypt.

Vast quantities of gold were extracted from the mines. Over hundreds of ancient gold workings have been discovered. The gold mines in Nubia and other parts of the Egyptian empire seem to have been very efficiently designed and controlled, though with a callous disregard for the human element employed. Mercury is stated to have been found in Egyptian tombs of from 1500-1600 B.C. Some metals were associated with some planets. For example, Gold was associated with the sun and the silver with the moon.

A papyrus called Leyden papyrus comprises about seventy-five recipes pertaining to the making of alloys, for soldering metals, for colouring the surfaces of metals, for testing the quality of or purity of metals, or for imitating the precious metals. Egyptians from very ancient dates were familiar with the art of glass making. Glass jars, figures and ornaments have been discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing.

Egyptian glass articles were of coloured glass, often beautifully patterned. The Egyptians developed a well established writing system although only a small percent of the population was literate. Writing was done in Papyrus which had a lengthy and expensive manufacturing process. A Complex writing system consisting of thousands of pictorial symbols was called hieroglyphics. In mathematics, there were good approximations for, and a method of calculating the surface and volumes of various geometric shapes.

Rhind Papyrus is an important mathematics text. Money was not discovered in Egypt and barter system prevailed in the market. The Egyptian concern for body preservation, mummification and anatomy, allowed this culture to develop highly advanced medical practices. These important advances included knowledge about a large variety of Herbal remedies, medicinal drugs and some contraceptive devices. Egyptian medical knowledge was transferred by the Greeks into other Middle Eastern and European civilizations.


The 'Smith Papyrus', and to a lesser extent the 'Ebers Papyrus', give us a very favourable idea of the medicine, anatomy, and physiology of the Egyptians. Medicine was specialised. Egyptian discoveries such as the leap year system, calendars and clocks are followed by the world community even today.

During the ancient Egyptian period people mostly travelled barefoot. It is believed that since the temperature in Egypt was very high throughout the year, people gave less importance to wearing footwear. There is hardly any record to suggest that the Egyptians wore shoes or any other form of footwear. The ancient Egyptians began wearing sandals during the early years of the New Kingdom rule.

The sandals used by these people were very simple and were made either by using straw, reeds or leather. The wealthy people wore leather sandals and these lasted for a longer time than the sandals which were made using straw or reeds. The sandals were worn by all people belonging to all the classes except those who were extremely poor.

The sandals were decorated by using beads, jewels; some also had buckles on the straps made from precious metals. For the most part, the ancient Egyptians walked without wearing sandals or shoes. Sandals were worn by people on special events. The gold and wood sandals are known to have been made in the ancient Egyptian period.

During the Middle and New Kingdoms time, the sandals were commonly used. The use of covered shoes by the ancient Egyptians is not very well known. However some records suggest that shoes were made by weaving palm fiber and grass.

In the Early Middle Kingdom, shoes were a modification of sandals. Shoes had straps between the toes and were joined to the sides at the heel. It also had leather cover which protected the feet. The Hittites settled in Anatolian highlands wore shoes with turned up toes. The Egyptians during the New Kingdom period are said to be influenced by the Hittites and began using shoes.

Ancient Egyptian God Ra

The ancient Egyptians are believed to have had as many as two thousand Gods and Goddesses. Some images of Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses show them with a human body and the head of a bird or an animal. Ra was the primary God in ancient Egypt. He was usually shown in human form with a falcon head, crowned with the sun disc encircled by the sacred cobra. He was often considered to be the King of the Gods and thus the patron of the pharaoh and one of the central gods of the Egyptian pantheon.

 The identity of the Sun God Ra was often confused with other gods as the different regional religions of Egypt were merged in an attempt to unite the country. The first references to Ra date from the second Dynasty. Ra became very powerful by fifth dynasty, the dynasty which is very much related to the pharaohs. The pharaoh was then named as the son of Ra.

The ancient Egyptian God Ra has been associated with the sun, heaven, light, power, kingship and the creation of universe. He is considered the father of Gods, and was the most important and worshipped king of Gods. He sailed across the heavens in a boat called the 'Barque of Millions of Years'. The sailing was not smooth. He had to fight a snake called Apep (his chief enemy) during the day. He was thought by the people to die at the end of the day. And at night time he travelled through underworld.

And he sent the moon to keep the world away from darkness at night. In the underworld, Ra appeared as a man with the head of a ram and reborn every morning. Ra is a young boy called Khepri at sunrise, he becomes the falcon-headed man during mid-day and at sunset he becomes an elder called Atum. Ra embodies the Egyptian beliefs of order and truth. In Egyptian mythology, he signifies the cycle of birth, life and death. That's why he is known as the father of creation.

 The early Egyptian priests evolved a creation myth, or Cosmogony, to explain how some of the Gods and Goddesses came into being.  The early Egyptian priests then evolved a Family tree, the relatives of the main Egyptian Gods, like Sun God Ra, to explain how some of the Gods and Goddesses were related. The eye of Ra is an ancient Egyptian of protection. It is also known as the eye of Horus. It is a powerful force that is linked with the fierce heat of the sun and was passed on to each Pharaoh.

The pyramids built around thousands of years ago still continue to attract tourists and historians from all over the world. The mysteries, myth and stories surrounding the pyramids are more alluring than all the historical places of the world. Throughout history there have been many speculations and theories about the Pyramids. Yet there are still many questions unanswered and which still continue to puzzle scientists, mathematicians, astronomers, historians, architects and physicists all around the world.

People have dedicated their entire lives to unlocking the secrets of these incredible structures and the people who built them. The word 'pyramid' actually comes from the Greek word 'pyramis' which means 'wheat cake'. The word 'pyramis' was used to describe the ancient Egyptian buildings because they reminded the Greeks of pointy-topped wheat cakes. The ancient Egyptian word for the pyramids was 'Mer'. Egyptologists have developed many theories about why the tombs of the early pharaohs were built in the pyramid shape.

Here are three different ideas:

1. The pyramid represented the first land to appear at the beginning of time- a hill called 'Ben-Ben'. Pyramid shaped stone found in the earliest of temples, which itself is thought to symbolize the primeval mound from which the Egyptians believed life emerged.

2. The pyramid had sloping sides so that the dead pharaoh could symbolically climb to the sky and live forever.

3. The pyramid represented the rays of the sun.

Evolution of pyramids:

At the starting the pyramids were not huge the pharaohs built smaller tombs called the Mastabas. These Mastabas were smaller in size and had space only for the mummies and a few things to take for the afterlife . Then the pharaohs began to built mounds of earth on their mastabas, this was to signify their grandness. The step pyramids were the first fancy pyramids, later the pharaohs decided to fill in the steps.

The first pointed pyramids were built at Gizia. The tallest pyramid Khufu's great pyramid was the tallest building till the Eiffel tower was built. The pyramids signified the power and wealth of the pharaohs. These pyramids were built by the Egyptian slaves. An estimated twenty thousand to thirty thousand slaves built the pyramid at Gizia for a period of eighty years.

Pyramid symbolism:

Though it is generally agreed that the pyramids were burial monuments there seems to be disagreement among the historians on the theological principal on which it was built. One of the most famous theories is that it was a "resurrection machine." That is it will directly launch the spirit of the pharaoh in heaven.The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky.

This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods. All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which as the site of the setting sun was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology.

It took more than manual labor, to built these majestic pyramids , architects achieved an accurate pyramid shape by running ropes from the outer corners up to the planned summit, to make sure the stones were positioned correctly and priests-astronomers helped choose the pyramids' sites and orientations, so that they would be on the appropriate axis in relation to sacred constellations.

From stone pusher to priest, every worker would likely have recognized his or her role in continuing the life-and-death cycle of the pharaohs, and thereby in perpetuating the glory of Egypt.

Obsession with afterlife:

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the pharaoh died, he became Osiris, king of the dead. The new pharaoh became Horus, god of the heavens and protector of the sun god. This cycle was symbolized by the rising and setting of the sun. Some part of a dead pharaoh's spirit, called his ka, was believed to remain with his body and it was thought that if the corpse did not have proper care, the former pharaoh would not be able to carry out his new duties as king of the dead. If this happened, the cycle would be broken and disaster would befall Egypt.

To prevent such a catastrophe, each dead pharaoh was mummified, which preserved his body. Everything the king would need in his afterlife was provided in his grave-vessels made of clay, stone, and gold, furniture, food, even doll-like representations of servants, known as ushabti. His body would continue to receive food offerings long after his death. The kings used to start building their pyramids at the beginning of their reign as it took years to complete the building of a pyramid.

As of November 2008, 118 pyramids have been identified. The search for answers and the quest to solve the mysteries continues and so does the mysteries. We with all our modern technologies and scientific advancement are yet to solve the mysteries of the great ancient civilization of Egypt.